Tercüme
Tercüme veya bazen düşük anlatımla translation anlamında çevirmekten çeviri denir. Dış linkler *Google'ın muhteşem tercüme proğramı: http://translate.google.com.tr *Google Mütercim Araç Kiti (Google Translator Toolkit): http://translate.google.com/toolkit/list?hl=tr#translations/active Yenişehir wiki tercüme şablonu {| border="1,5" style="blue-collapse:collapse;" |-align=center style="background-color: yellow " || Wikipedia || Tercümesi |- || İngilizce || Tercümesi |- =Wikipedia= Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Tom McArthur, ed., 1992, pp. 1,051–54. Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.J.M. Cohen, "Translation", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 27, p. 12. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", The Polish Review, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 84-87. Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations.Andrew Wilson, Translators on Translating: Inside the Invisible Art, Vancouver, CCSP Press, 2009. Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation).W.J. Hutchins, Early Years in Machine Translation: Memoirs and Biographies of Pioneers, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2000. The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localization.M. Snell-Hornby, The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints?, Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 2006, p. 133. Etymology ]] The word translation derives from the Latin , together meaning "to carry across" or "to bring across"). The modern Romance languages use words for translation derived from that source and from the alternative Latin ("to lead across"). The Germanic and Slavic languages likewise use calques based on these Latin sources.Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83. The Ancient Greek term for translation, (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with metaphrase (a "literal translation", a "word-for-word" translation) and paraphrase ("a saying in other words", from , paraphrasis). In contemporary usage, metaphrase corresponds to "formal equivalence", and paraphrase corresponds to "dynamic equivalence."Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 84. A secular icon for the art of translation is the Rosetta Stone. This trilingual (hieroglyphic-Egyptian, demotic-Egyptian, Ancient-Greek) stele proved to be the translator’s key to decryption of Egyptian hieroglyphs for Thomas Young, Jean-François Champollion and others.The Columbia Encyclopedia, fifth edition, 1994, p. 2,361. Theory History of Western theory ]] Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden (1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language: ]] Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted translation: “When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..." This general formulation of the central concept of translation — equivalence — is as adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horace, who, in first-century-BCE Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" ( ). Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents — "literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary — for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context. ]] In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order — when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languagesTypically, analytic languages. (e.g. English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languagesTypically, synthetic languages. (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are "untranslatable" among the modern European languages.A greater problem, however, is translating terms relating to cultural concepts that have no equivalent in the target language. Some examples of this are described in the article, "Translating the 17th of May into English and other horror stories" http://www.noproblem.no/translate.html, retrieved 2010-04-15. For full comprehension, such situations require the provision of a gloss. ]] Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French ("present", "current"), the Polish ("present", "current"),Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 85. or the Russian ("urgent", "topical"). The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the second-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson’s remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon. If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether.Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 85-86. ]] ]] The translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther, is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one translates only toward his own language.L.G. Kelly, cited in Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86. Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The British historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the ''spoken'' language, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry Andrzej Kopczyński.Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86. The translator’s special role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's La Fontaine", the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki: ("On Translating Books"), in (Works in Verse and Prose), 1803, reprinted in Edward Balcerzan, ed., (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), p. 79.}} Religious texts of translators and encyclopedists']] , by Michelangelo]] An important role in history has been played by translation of religious texts. Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese often skewed their translations to better reflect China's distinct culture, emphasizing notions such as filial piety. One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the third century BCE. The translation is known as the "Septuagint", a name that refers to the seventy translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible at Alexandria, Egypt. Each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and according to legend all seventy versions proved identical. The ''Septuagint became the source text for later translations into many languages, including Latin, Coptic, Armenian and Georgian. Still considered one of the greatest translators in history, for having rendered the Bible into Latin, is Saint Jerome, the patron saint of translation. For centuries the Roman Catholic Church used his translation (known as the Vulgate), though even this translation at first stirred controversy. The period preceding, and contemporary with, the Protestant Reformation saw the translation of the Bible into local European languages — a development that contributed to Western Christianity's split into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism due to disparities between Catholic and Protestant versions of crucial words and passages. Lasting effects on the religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries have been exerted by such Bible translations as Martin Luther's into German, Jakub Wujek's into Polish, and the King James Bible's translators' into English. A famous mistranslation of the Bible is the rendering of the Hebrew word (keren), which has several meanings, as "horn" in a context where it actually means "beam of light". As a result, for centuries artists have depicted Moses the Lawgiver with horns growing out of his forehead; an example is Michelangelo's famous sculpture. Some Christians with anti-Semitic feelings have used such depictions to spread hatred of the Jews, claiming that they were devils with horns. Kategori:Çeviri Kategori:Çeviriler